Table of contents

• The potential
• What does repowering involve?
• BESS’s contribution to repowering
• The European repowering picture
• Policy support 
  • EU policy framework
  • UK policy support
  • Overall barriers to repowering in the EU

Europe’s first generation of turbines is reaching retirement age. Some of the oldest farms, occupying Europe’s best wind sites, have already reached end-of-life and are operating less efficient turbines. According to WindEurope, about 20% of Europe’s 90,000 onshore turbines are 15 years old or older. Modernisation (rather than decommissioning or extending maintenance) is therefore essential to maximising potential. Between 2023 and 2030, 83 GW of European onshore wind power will reach 15 years of age – well past middle age for technology with a 20–25 year lifespan. WindEurope projects that of this aging capacity, only about 6.7% will be repowered.

Repowering projects are increasingly looking to combine wind generation with on-site BESS, as in the Wind Park Hartel 2 project in the Netherlands. Investors such as Triodos Energy Transition Europe Fund also recognise the important role of storage in these projects, saying: “Energy storage at the parks also plays a crucial role in coping with the peaks and troughs in electricity generation. Batteries can therefore no longer be ignored in the (re)development of wind and solar farms.” 

Yet, progress is uneven across Europe. Germany hosts more than half of all repowered projects, while Spain – Europe’s second-largest onshore wind market – accounts for just 3%, despite massive potential. Grid connection difficulties, restrictive height regulations, and cumbersome permitting processes are slowing the uptake that could transform Europe’s renewable energy landscape.

The potential

According to consulting firm Sia, Europe must achieve 250 GW of wind power installations by 2030 to reach its targets, with repowering offering a pathway to contribute an additional 65 GW through 2030. Since the oldest wind farms are usually in the best wind sites (and have small and less efficient turbines), there’s a clear opportunity to maximise energy production from Europe’s prime wind locations through modernisation. But, of the 83 GW reaching 15+ years by 2030, WindEurope projects only 5.6 GW will be repowered, 70 GW life-extended, and 7.8 GW decommissioned.

Repowering typically triples wind farm output and quadruples output per turbine. It can also reduce the total number of turbines required by 25%. The UK, for example, has about 1.3 GW of onshore wind that will reach the end of its operating life by 2030 and approximately 2.2 GW by 2035. Another example, Spain, has an estimated potential of 15 GW in the repowering segment.

What does repowering involve?

Repowering usually means dismantling old turbines and replacing them with fewer, higher-capacity, more efficient models. This often requires repositioning turbines due to their larger size, triggering a new approval process that can be equivalent to building an entirely new wind farm. A challenge is that regulatory hurdles frequently complicate these projects: existing permits typically don’t transfer to new turbines, and some jurisdictions may even prohibit rebuilding on the same site. In many cases, authorities lack clear guidelines for repowering, leaving developers navigating uncertain regulatory territory where rules simply don’t exist yet.

The complete dismantling process removes every component from blades to foundations, with materials either recycled or disposed of properly before restoring unused land to its natural state.

Up to 85–90% of turbine materials are now recyclable, with ongoing innovation in blade recycling as part of improved recycling and circularity practices.

BESS’s contribution to repowering

As mentioned, repowered sites can produce significantly more electricity with greater peaks and variability, creating new challenges for grid integration. BESS is increasingly essential to store surplus energy, enable flexibility, and provide frequency regulation services for the grid. New repowering projects that combine wind generation with on-site BESS improve the value of the project, enabling participation in ancillary services markets and maximising grid export during peaks. This co-location trend is part of the move towards solutions that address both generation and grid stability requirements.

Battery storage systems can play several critical roles in repowered wind farms, including smoothing intermittent wind power output, providing flexibility to balance supply and demand, and enabling better use of grid connections. Additional opportunities include arbitrage between low and high electricity prices, participation in balancing markets, and congestion management to alleviate grid constraints. The FLEXITRANSTORE project in Greece, for example, integrated BESS at a wind park to provide frequency and voltage regulation and improve grid stability. In the UK and Germany, national grids and local projects are increasingly combining BESS with new and repowered wind to maximise renewable penetration and grid reliability.

The European repowering picture

The repowering of wind farms is not equally distributed between EU Member States and the UK, with significant variations in adoption and policy support across the continent.

• Germany leads with more than half of all repowered projects located here – it’s one of the biggest markets for wind energy and home to many first-generation wind farms now reaching end-of-life.
• Spain, Europe’s second-largest onshore wind energy market with much repowering potential, hosts only 3% of repowered projects. Grid connections for repowered wind farms are so difficult to get that developers prefer to simply keep the old turbines running.
• France is missing out on the advantages of repowering due to their restrictive tip height rules that don’t allow developers to build the latest and most efficient onshore wind turbines.
• The UK offers promise with policy changes allowing fully repowered onshore wind projects to participate in the Contracts for Difference (CfD) regime from mid-2025.

Despite the clear benefits of repowering, many EU Member States lack effective repowering strategies, leaving significant potential untapped across Europe.

Policy support 

EU policy framework

The European Commission has put forward key permitting and repowering provisions in the revised Renewable Energy Directive. This gives repowering projects a targeted 6-month permitting decision timeline, potentially opening up more tender and support opportunities through national plans. As part of its REPowerEU Plan and European Wind Power Action Plan, the EU has passed new legislation, including the Emergency Regulation on Renewables Permitting, which seeks to facilitate repowering renewables projects through expediting the permitting process.

UK policy support

In 2024, the UK government removed a de facto ban on onshore wind in England. From CfD Allocation Round 7, expected in mid-2025, repowering onshore wind projects that meet the required criteria will be allowed to apply for a CfD, with forward bidding permitted so projects are not required to decommission and lose their revenue stream before applying.

Overall barriers to repowering in the EU

• Permitting challenges – overly cumbersome and lengthy permitting procedures are holding back the much-needed uptake of repowering. Many Member States have yet to implement streamlined procedures despite EU policy direction.
• Grid access presents major obstacles, as securing new or upgraded grid connections can be difficult and expensive, especially in markets like Spain, where this is stunting repowering progress.
• Site restrictions that include limiting blade-tip height regulations, which prevent the use of higher-capacity next-generation turbines.
• Economic factors – some sites cannot access adequate financial incentives, and the lack of subsidies or suitable revenue stabilisation like CfDs can make repowering uneconomic compared to operating old assets.

Onshore wind repowering is poised for significant growth as market incentives and policy reforms streamline the process across Europe. For countries with limited suitable wind sites, repowering is an important solution. Higher-capacity installations on proven locations can compensate for land scarcity and accelerate progress toward energy targets. Technical feasibility, improving economics, and increasingly supportive regulatory frameworks at both national and European levels are likely to create the conditions for scaled deployment. This alignment makes repowering projects particularly attractive for BESS developers seeking established grid connections and proven wind resources.

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What is BESS and how does it work?

Understanding how battery energy storage systems work is essential for those who want to know the knots and bolts of the industry. Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) are in simple terms big batteries that store energy for later use, ensuring a reliable supply of energy when the primary energy source is unavailable. These systems are crucial for utilities, businesses, and homes, providing a buffer against energy supply fluctuations caused by weather, blackouts, or geopolitical issues.

Battery energy storage systems have quickly gone from being overlooked to becoming a fundamental component of modern energy strategies, particularly those leveraging renewable energy sources like solar power and wind.

Solar and wind energy, while abundant, isn’t producing energy all the time. By integrating battery energy storage systems with photovoltaic (PV) solutions or wind turbines, solar and wind energy is stored for later use. This integration ensures a continuous and steady power supply, mitigating the intermittent nature of solar energy and enhancing overall energy reliability.

How battery energy storage systems work​​​

The operating principle of a battery energy storage system (BESS) is simple. Batteries get electricity from the power grid, directly from a power station, or from renewable energy sources like solar panels or wind turbines. They store this electricity as current, which is released when DSOs need the extra power. 

That’s the very simple version, but there’s more to BESS.

When combined with advanced software, a BESS transforms into a sophisticated platform that merges the storage capacity of batteries with intelligent energy management. By harnessing AI, machine learning, and data-driven solutions, these systems can optimize energy consumption, adapting to fluctuations in demand and supply. This intelligent management makes BESS a powerful asset in combating climate change by enabling more efficient and flexible energy use.

Battery energy storage systems support the increased deployment of renewable energy sources, helping to reduce carbon emissions and lower energy costs for businesses and households.

Main applications​

Battery storage can be used in various ways that go beyond simple emergency backups during energy shortages or blackouts. Applications differ depending on whether the storage is utilized by businesses or homes. 

Let’s check them out.

For commercial and industrial use, BESS applications include:

• Peak shaving: This involves managing energy demand to avoid sudden short-term spikes in consumption.
• Load shifting: Businesses can shift their energy consumption from one time period to another by using the battery when energy costs are higher.
• Flexibility: Customers can reduce their grid demand at critical times without changing their overall electricity consumption. This makes it easier to participate in Demand Response programs and save on energy costs.
• Microgrids: Batteries are crucial for microgrids as they provide the necessary energy storage to enable disconnection from the main electricity grid when needed.
• Integration with renewable energy sources: Batteries ensure a smooth and continuous electricity flow when renewable energy sources are not available.

For residential users, BESS offers several benefits:

• Self-consumption: Homeowners can produce solar energy during daylight hours and use stored energy to run their appliances at night.
• Emergency backup: Batteries provide a reliable backup power source during blackouts.
• Going off the grid: BESS enables complete detachment from electrical or energy utilities, providing energy independence.

Advantages of battery energy storage systems

The advantages of using battery storage technologies are numerous. They enhance the reliability and viability of renewable energy sources. Solar and wind power supplies can fluctuate, so battery storage systems are essential for “smoothing out” this flow to provide a continuous power supply, regardless of whether the wind is blowing or the sun is shining. Additionally, they protect users from grid fluctuations that could compromise energy supply. Here are some key advantages of battery storage:

• Environmental gains: Installing a battery storage system in homes or businesses powered by renewable energy reduces pollution, contributing to the energy transition and combating global warming.
• Lower energy costs: Storing low-cost energy and consuming it during peak periods when electricity rates are higher allows users to shift consumption and avoid higher charges, saving money. These savings are magnified when combined with solar power, which is free.
• Reduced grid dependency: Battery storage systems guarantee a continuous energy supply, even when the energy grid is unstable due to peaks in demand or extreme weather.
• “Always on” supply: Since the sun is not always “on,” a battery storage system works around the clock, compensating for any fluctuations in solar energy supply by storing excess power.
• Resilience: A battery storage system provides emergency backup during power outages, ensuring business continuity and household comfort.

What are the main types of battery energy storage systems?

Battery energy storage systems come in two primary varieties: “Behind-the-Meter” (BTM) systems, also known as “small-scale battery storage,” and “Front-of-the-Meter” (FTM) systems, which belongs on the utility side of energy distribution.

Behind-the-meter systems (BTM):
These systems are installed on the user’s premises and are typically smaller than Front-of-the-Meter systems. BTM systems, such as residential PV plants and battery storage units, reduces stress on the public grid when solar power isn’t produced, for instance, when the sun isn’t shining. The main function of a BTM is to improve the stability of the owner’s energy supply and reduce costs. If local regulations permit, these batteries can also feed energy back into the grid, providing an additional revenue stream.

Front-of-the-meter systems (FTM):
FTM systems are larger and directly connected to the power grid, typically belonging to utilities. These systems include large-scale energy production and storage facilities like power plants, solar parks, and substantial energy storage units. FTM systems help solve network congestion issues and can serve as alternatives to building new power lines.

How long does a battery energy storage system last and how to give it a second life?​

Most battery energy storage systems last between 5 to 15 years. As integral components of the energy transition, these systems not only enable sustainability but also must be sustainable themselves. Reusing batteries and recycling their materials at the end of their life aligns with broader sustainability goals and applies circular economy principles effectively.

Recovering materials from batteries and giving them a second life offers significant environmental benefits, both in the extraction and disposal stages. Additionally, battery reuse provides economic advantages, reducing the need for new materials and lowering overall costs.

BESS revenue streams

As BESS is not generating energy on its own and is acting as a flexible asset in our energy system it can gain revenue through many different ways depending on the market. The most common ways of gaining revenues in European markets are either ancillary services or energy arbitrage. 

Ancillary services are services that the grid provider buys from the asset owner, the most common one here is ‘Frequency services’. which can be divided into what’s known as ‘Frequency containment reserve’ (FCR) and ‘Automatic Frequency restoration reserve’ (aFRR).

Energy arbitrage is basically using the market fluctuation of the electricity price to gain revenue – charging when the price is low and discharging when the price is high.

How to find the right investor for battery energy storage projects​

Whether you’re a new or seasoned developer, you’ve probably already witnessed first-hand that there are many investors out there, many of whom are willing to invest in renewable energy projects.

Although finding investors for energy storage projects is easy in theory, finding just the right one typically proves itself to be a whole different game, oftentimes taking multiple months, especially if you want to be sure that you also get the optimum price for your project.    

Having been in this business for nearly a decade, we know the struggle, but we also know the solution to it.

Read more about how we help developers find the right investor for energy storage projects.

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What is an agrivoltaic system?​

The agrivoltaic installation uses the share of the sun irradiation by photovoltaic modules and the agricultural land underneath. This concept derails the conflict between photovoltaic energy production and agricultural production. The basic idea, which motivated the early pioneers of the AGV (Or APV) is to have a minimal impact on the agricultural land used for photovoltaic production and thus leave it available for cultivation. The first experiments related to this technology date back to the early 80s and had to wait until 2011 in Italy to see a concrete and sustainable evolution of the concept, which issued the name Agrovoltaico®. 

With the support of incentive tariffs, which do not distinguish between a ground-mounted PV plant and an agrivoltaic plant, in Northern Italy, 6.7 MW of plants were connected in 2011, covering 45 hectares of agricultural land. Under these plants, various crops have been cultivated including corn, rice, wheat, and barley, through classic agricultural means and without changing the methods of cultivation.

In recent years, worldwide interest in this technology has increased and has become the subject of research by several institutions, both public and private. Last year, for example, the European Commission approved Italy’s €1.7 billion Italian State aid scheme under the Recovery and Resilience Facility to support 1.04 GW of agrivoltaic installations by 2026. 

Case example: Borgo Virgilio ​

This system can reconcile food production with the supply of energy from renewable sources.

The panels are built on suspended structures, which have mounted axes that hold the photovoltaic panels. These panels rotate thanks to the presence of an engine connected through a wireless communication system.

This type of structure allows the panels to adjust both orientation and inclination in relation to the position of the sun, in order to turn their surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun’s rays. In this way, the panels can intercept the largest amount of solar irradiation compared to traditional systems. 

At the same time, crop productivity can be stimulated by modifying the inclination of the panel during the different stages of the plant’s life cycle. This is a fundamental feature, thanks to which the system allows the change of the amount of light during the phenological phases considered critical. 

For example, this happens during the setting of fruits or ripening, where it might be considered appropriate to increase the amount of light available for the plant. While in the phases not critical to development, it may be more advantageous to favor shading and consequently electricity production. It should be noted that light requirements vary according to the culture, the phenological phase, and the climate.

The advantages of agrivoltaic systems​

The panels affect the amount of shade that the soil or crop receives. As a result, two areas are created. The first one is adjacent to the main axis of the panels where the shade is more intense. The second corresponds to the area where the shading occurs only at certain times of the day. Shadow, if handled correctly, has prominent advantages:

• Reduces the amount of water used by the plant.
• Promotes the maintenance of moisture inside the soil. 
• Promotes the formation of a microclimate below the panels, in which, external temperatures are mitigated.
• Panels protect crops from extreme weather events.

In addition, below the agrivoltaic systems, unlike the traditional photovoltaic panels, common agricultural practices can be carried on without any constraint. 

So, through agrivoltaic systems, the following goals are achieved: 

• Recovering part of the abandoned agricultural land allows the achievement of the decarbonization targets.
• Excellent compromise between the production of renewable energy and agriculture. You can read more about the benefits of agrivoltaic systems in our in-depth piece.

Latest agrivoltaic designs​

There are no standards in the design of agrivoltaic systems, only definitions which are covered in this guide on Italian agrivoltaics, but there may be different types of structures.

The last design of Agrovoltaico® systems allows to increase the specific power production of each tracker by using high-density PV modules as well as the power production by using bi-facial modules.

This design increases the flexibility of the shadow management of the system as well as the power production. The consequence is an improvement in the photosynthesis of the crop underneath. 

Agrivoltaic deployment around the world​

By 2030, according to Legambiente, PV energy must supply at least 60% of the production of energy from non-renewable sources. Reaching a production of 100 TWh, corresponding to an area of panels in the order of 50,000 hectares. However, it is clear that using traditional photovoltaic panels would require the usage of a very large AA (utilized agricultural area). Therefore, the adoption of Agrovoltaico® systems is fundamental to be able to decrease CO₂ production and safeguard the planet. 

For these reasons, Italy is not the only country where the use of agrivoltaics systems for the production of renewable energy and for the supply of raw materials is promoted. 

Agrivoltaics in Europe​

In 2020, other nations such as Germany and the Netherlands, began the construction of 5 experimental agrivoltaic plants, where 4 different crops will be tested: blueberry, red currant, strawberries, and blackberries. Germany is planning on using renewables to cover 65% of its power consumption by 2030 this means that a new powerful agrivoltaic will need to be built. 

Indeed, one of the projects of Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE) in Freiburg is an Agrivoltaic plant in Herdwangen-Schönach, around 30 km north of Lake Constance, where a 2,500-square-metre pilot plant has been in operation for three years on the Demeterhof of the Heggelbach farming community. 

The solar modules, with an output of 195 kilowatts, generate electricity on five-meter-high steel structures so that tractors and combined harvesters can easily fit underneath. BayWa r.e. in 2021 announced the completion of its first agrivoltaic plant combined with red currants in the Netherlands. Further agrivoltaic projects are currently being planned in Europe and the rest of the world by 2022.

Agrivoltaics in the US

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has supported the implementation of 25 experiments that include blueberry cultivation in Massachusetts. 

NREL forecasts that by 2030, around 3 million acres in the United States to be covered by agrivoltaic systems.  

Agrivoltaics in China

Across Asia, agrivoltaic plants are increasingly being installed as part of efforts to reduce CO2 emissions by 2060. China, the world’s largest CO2 emitter, aims to achieve carbon neutrality by then. In 2020, China boosted renewable energy production from agrivoltaic systems by 40 GW. The country’s total renewable energy capacity could potentially double within the next five years.

One of the world’s largest agrivoltaic plants, with a capacity of 2.2 GW, is located in northeastern Qinghai prefecture, second only to India’s Bhadla plant with 2.5 GW. This system enables plant cultivation in a region with minimal precipitation by reducing soil evapotranspiration by 30-40%. Installed at a height of 1.9 meters, the panels allow both plant growth and agricultural maintenance.

In 2016, Panda Green Energy installed an agrivoltaic system in vineyards in Turpan, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and later expanded the project by several tens of MW due to its success. That same year, a 70 MW agrivoltaic system was installed on agricultural and forestry crops in Jiangxi prefecture. In 2017, a 550 kWh Agrovoltaico® system was built in Fuyang, Anhui prefecture. Today, agrivoltaic systems are predominantly found in northeastern China, particularly in Xinjiang, Gansu, and Qinghai.

Agrivoltaics in Japan​

Japan was the first country to develop an agrivoltaic system. In 2004, Akira Nagashima developed a removable structure conceptually similar to the Agrovoltaico® system that was tested on different crops. 

Then, numerous plants were developed with permanent facilities and with capacities of several MW, the first was built in 2013. In 2017, moreover, 1300 people have been employed, an increase of 13 times in just 4 years. 

At the moment, the most important construction project is in the Chiba area. The second in the Shizuoka area and the third in the Gunma area. In the Shiga area, the Japanese company Nisshoku has built an agrivoltaic system with a capacity of 526.4 kWp and has 11 plants in the suburbs of Shiga, Hyogo, and Kyoto with a total capacity of 11.1 MW. 

In 2018 a 35 MWp plant was installed on 54 hectares, below the panels, there is the cultivation of ginseng, ashitaba, and coriander.

Agrivoltaics in South Korea​

In 2016, South Korea installed its first 100 kWh agrivoltaic system, initiated by Green Energy Institute Korea in Chungbuk Ochang, cultivating rice, cabbage, ginseng, soybeans, garlic, and other vegetables. By 2030, the South Korean government plans to source 20% of its energy from renewables, up from 5% in 2017. 

To support this goal, the Korea Agrivoltaic Association was established in 2019 to promote and develop the agrivoltaic industry. Initially, national laws restricted agrivoltaic systems on hard-to-reach areas or non-arable slopes, but in 2017, these rules were relaxed. The government aims to build 100,000 agrivoltaic systems by 2030.

Prioritizing food over electricity​

A theme typical of new technologies is now opening up, namely, to draw up the criteria and rules for a plant to get the agrivoltaic label.

The focal point of this is that the primary factor must be agricultural production, not electricity production. Otherwise, there is an important risk that can result in the growth of agrivoltaics and the profits of the workers, to the detriment of agricultural crops and the territory. For example, Italy has banned solar PV on farmland, which comes from the fear that solar farms might be impacting food supplies.

In order for the AGV plant to be an added value for agriculture, it is necessary for the plant to be in fact an agricultural machine, which can manage the determining factors for the growth of plants, namely light, water, and temperature.

The scientific research of the companies that first developed the AGV model is oriented in this direction. It’s about creating algorithms that derail, sharing light, and then the apparent conflict between electrical and agricultural production.

A take on the future​

In the future, agricultural land will partly feature agrivoltaic systems, where farmers harness solar energy to power machinery and optimize crop growth by adjusting PV panels. However, this clashes with energy producers focused solely on maximizing output. The challenge lies in balancing energy loss with increased agricultural yield and adjusting shading to meet plant needs.

Meanwhile, some companies misuse the agrivoltaic label, installing fixed PV panels on farmland for energy production, leaving little space for agriculture. This mirrors past practices where PV-covered greenhouses in Europe abandoned agriculture in favor of energy production alone

Final thoughts​

The goal is for insiders to invest in research while upholding the core principle of Agrovoltaico®: prioritizing agriculture. This challenge is heightened by climate change, and the ongoing health and economic crises. We can no longer afford to create models for their own sake. Today’s reality demands proactive, interconnected solutions. Producing clean energy isn’t enough. We must consider the environmental impact and the footprint of our structures, including their eventual dismantling and land use. Sustainable models like agrivoltaics offer a systemic response, aiming not just to avoid problems but to be part of the solution.

How to finance agrivoltaic projects

Whether you’re a new or seasoned developer or not, you’ve probably already witnessed first-hand that there are many investors out there, many of whom are willing to invest in renewable energy projects.

Although finding investors for solar projects is easy, finding just the right one typically proves itself to be a whole different game, oftentimes taking multiple months, especially if you want to be sure that you also get the optimum price for your project.    

Having been in this business for nearly a decade, we know the struggle, but we also know the solution to it.

Read more about how we help developers find the right investor for utility-scale solar projects.

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Bigger turbines are better – but also expensive​

Scaling up global wind turbine installations faces real-world challenges for developers. While increasing capacity is demanding larger and more effective turbines, the associated higher production costs, coupled with recent surges in commodity prices are forcing developers to choose smaller, less efficient towers to safeguard their margins. The average cost to build 1MW of wind turbine capacity has surged by 38% in the past two years, driven by a 93% increase in critical minerals since pre-COVID and volatile steel prices.

Could scrap metal result in lower prices?

The use of scrap metal in wind turbine manufacturing, exemplified by Siemens Gamesa’s GreenerTower and Vestas’ low-emission tower made from 100% steel scrap, offers a potential cost-saving avenue. As the cost of scrap metal generally undercuts that of virgin steel, and recycling saves 72% of the energy we need for primary production, these initiatives could lead to significant savings once commercial maturity and large-scale production are achieved, but even when we get to that point, uncertainty lingers about whether these efforts will lead to future reductions in wind turbine prices or if manufactures will absorb the cost-savings without passing them on to developers.

Wooden turbine towers to the rescue

Our modern-day wind turbines have historically relied on steel to withstand natural forces, until now. The Swedish company Modvion, founded in 2016 in Gothenburg, is challenging the norm by harnessing the potential of wood to create taller, cheaper, and more sustainable wind turbine towers. Made from spruce, small modules, each consisting of 144 layers of 3mm-thick LVL is the secret sauce that makes up the towers that can sufficiently support today’s wind turbines.  

“Wood and glue is the perfect combination, we’ve known that for hundreds of years. And because using wood is lighter [than steel] you can build taller turbines with less material.”
– David Olivegren, Founder and Board member

Once installed, the wooden tower structure not only outlives the mechanical parts but also has a negative climate impact, storing between 240-950 tons of CO2 per tower, depending on height and load. For a 105-meter-tall tower, about 200 sustainably farmed spruce trees are used to create enough LVL.

Five birds, one stone​

Developers and investors in the wind sector should pay attention to this innovative technology. Wooden turbine towers, according to Modvion, offer solutions to multiple challenges developers face:

Higher towers – Higher revenues:
Wooden towers minimize the need for expensive reinforcements or maintenance, making them more cost-efficient than steel, particularly for taller structures.

Lighter constructions:
Wood is lighter weight when compared to steel and reduces the tower’s overall weight by approximately 30%, leading to cost savings.

Easy transportation:
LVL modules enable easy on-site assembly, addressing transportation issues associated with towering wind structures, thus reducing costs. To this claim Modvion adds that that the reduced transportation costs are very project-specific, but generally speaking Modvion towers can be adapted to transport restraints, circumventing costly infrastructure remodeling that is done today. Crane optimization will benefit from the higher specific strength, allowing 30% higher tower segments to be lifted compared to steel.

No exposure to steel price fluctuations:
The absence of steel means immunity to the volatile fluctuations in steel prices, providing stability for developers.

Reduced CO2 emissions:
The life cycle emissions from a 110m tall tower of steel is approximately 1250 tons of CO2. The corresponding wooden turbine tower emits 90% less emissions, which means around 125 tons of carbon dioxide, and considering.

The cost challenge​

As previously discussed, the threat of narrowed profit margins looms over developers opting for taller steel-based towers, making cost a paramount factor. Modvion confidently asserts that its towers will not exceed the cost of traditional steel towers and, in the long run, will prove more economical. The degree of cost reduction hinges on the tower’s height – the taller the tower, the more pronounced the cost advantage over steel. To put it in perspective, Modvion has told us that a wooden tower could, over time, slash costs by 25% compared to traditional 150-meter towers.

Opposing views​

Dr. Maximilian Schnippering, Head of Sustainability at Siemens Gamesa, challenges the optimistic outlook on potential savings, citing logistical hurdles. In a recent statement to the BBC, he remarked, “More pieces are likely to mean more trucks, more people, and more time to complete the installation.” Despite this, Schnippering acknowledges the modular system as “an advantage” and sees wooden towers as a “nice complement” to steel towers.

While it might seem that Schnippering’s views are influenced by Siemens Gamesa’s competition with Vestas, a key investor in Modvion, the company actively collaborates with various OEMs to diversify its portfolio. Vestas remains a crucial partner, but Modvion is committed to expanding partnerships for broader industry impact.

Anticipating progress​

Despite being in its early stages, Modvion has accelerated its path to a global rollout with the successful completion of the ‘Wind of Change’ project. This marked the commercial delivery of a 105m tall tower with a 2MW turbine installed, demonstrating significant momentum.

The company’s ambitious ‘Raise Me Up’ project, set to commence in Q4 2023, aims to develop, test, and implement a 6MW tower for large onshore platforms, with a potential delivery date in 2025.

“Vestas is currently offering Modvion towers to a few, selected customers. As the first OEM implementing our component, they tell us that all wind farm developers in Sweden asks them when they can purchase Modvion towers. A great signal of course. As 60% of the German, Swedish, Finnish markets are already at total heights above 230m, the market pull for our solution is only strengthening”.​
Otto Lundman, CEO, Modvion

Modvion’s vision is to secure a 10% market share within the next decade, equating to 2,000 wooden turbine towers annually. While wooden towers may not dominate the landscape yet, they represent a promising addition to the wind energy sector’s evolution—a development that developers should closely monitor.

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Unlike fossil fuels—coal, oil, and gas—which demand hundreds of millions of years to form and contribute to harmful greenhouse gas emissions when burned, renewable energy sources offer a cleaner, greener alternative. 

But what exactly is renewable energy, and how does it promise to help our global energy landscape?

Renewable energy. Defined.​

From the perpetual glow of sunlight to the ever-shifting currents of wind and waves, these natural resources are abundant and omnipresent and present a way out of the climate crisis if tamed and utilized.

The official definition of renewable energy by the United Nations says that renewable energy is “energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed”.

But, transitioning from fossil fuels to renewables is not merely an environmental necessity but also a strategic necessity for many countries to diversify and secure the supply of energy.

The shift to more renewable energy holds the promise of significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions and consumer prices, with renewables already proving to be a more cost-effective and job-generating solution than their fossil counterparts.

Solar energy

Harnessing sunlight through photovoltaic panels (PV for short) offers one of the most sustainable and cost-effective solutions that can help deliver everything from heat to cooling to electricity for residential homes to industrial complexes.

How solar energy works​

Solar energy is in theory quite simple: When the sun is shining and reaches a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in the panel. This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow.

More energy in store​

The good news about solar is that there is plenty of if. 

And despite solar energy being in high demand, we are still far from fully being able to harness the power of the sun. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the rate at which solar energy is intercepted by planet Earth is about 10.000 times larger than the rate at which we as humans can consume it.

The plummeting cost of solar panel manufacturing has not only made solar power affordable but often the most economical electricity option in many countries.

At the time of writing, the price of solar panels are at an all-time low thanks to China having flooded the European market with cheap yet effective solar panels. In fact, 96% of EU solar panel import comes from China.

Wind energy

From towering onshore turbines to sprawling offshore wind farms, wind energy holds vast potential to meet global electricity demands. Despite variations in wind speed, the technical capacity for wind energy far exceeds current electricity production, offering a compelling case for further investment and innovation in this renewable realm.

How does wind energy work​

Wind energy has undergone a remarkable evolution since the Danish scientist Poul la Cour in 1890 discovered that fewer rotor blades, not more, was the most effective way to harness the power of the wind.   

Today, the wind is captured by turning the top part of the turbine, also known as the nacelle, against the wind and adjusting its three blades at an angle that lets the flow of air cause rotation. Once moving, a drive shaft inside the nacelle turns magnets inside a coil of wire. This generates an alternating current of electricity.

The future belongs to wind energy​

As with solar, there is plenty of wind for everyone. Wind turbines have the potential to be deployed in almost every country on Earth where winds are strong and consistent enough. The potential for wind is still one of the largest when it comes to renewable energy and around 2.000 new turbines would be needed to be installed every year for the next decade to meet global targets.  

The best locations for wind turbines is often at sea due to the strong winds, which simultaneously removes the issue of local communities being against having these large steel structures in their backyard – a phenomenon also known as NIMBY (not in my backyard).

Geothermal energy​

Tapping into the Earth’s internal heat reservoirs, geothermal energy presents a reliable and mature technology for electricity generation. Whether harnessing naturally occurring hydrothermal reservoirs or employing enhanced geothermal systems, this renewable source offers a sustainable alternative with minimal environmental impact.

How does geothermal energy work? ​

With over a century of operational experience, geothermal energy stands as a testament to the enduring power of Earth’s natural resources.

The way it works is simple yet very powerful.
Small underground pathways bring underground fluids through hot rocks.
In geothermal electricity generation, this fluid can be drawn as energy in the form of heat through wells to the earth’s surface. Once it has reached the surface, this fluid is used to drive turbines that produce electricity.

The USA leads the race in terms of utilizing geothermal energy. Almost 4 GW, enough to power around 3 million homes, is being generated in the US every year.

Hydropower

Leveraging the gravitational force of water, hydropower remains not only a cornerstone of renewable energy infrastructure in many countries but also the largest source of renewable energy at the time of writing. From reservoir-based plants to run-of-river installations, hydropower offers and very versatile solution capable of meeting diverse energy needs. While concerns over ecosystem impact persist, innovations in small-scale hydro technologies hold the promise of minimizing environmental disruption while empowering local communities.

How does hydropower work?​

Hydropower has two modes:
1. Run-of-the-river systems: Here the flow and force of the water apply pressure on a turbine that in turn produces electricity.
2. Storage systems: Here water is stored in reservoirs and released when energy is needed. The volume of the water flow and the change in elevation – or fall determine the amount of available energy in moving water, so the greater the water flow and elevation, the more electricity a hydro plant is able to produce.

Ocean power

Harnessing the untapped potential of our oceans, ocean energy represents a frontier yet to be fully explored in full. Ocean energy offers a vast reservoir of untapped energy waiting to be harnessed. In fact, more than the world’s entire energy consumption. As research and development efforts accelerate, ocean energy holds the promise of becoming a significant contributor to our renewable energy portfolio if the technology manages to harness the potential of our oceans.

How does ocean energy work?​

There are currently three types of wave energy technologies being tried and tested to reach a level of large-scale commercialization, each designed to harness wave energy in different environments.

1. A point absorber is a floating buoy that absorbs energy through the movement of the waves at the water’s surface.
2. An oscillating wave surge converter is mounted on the seabed in shallower water, and harnesses wave energy with an oscillating flap.

An oscillating water column is a partially submerged, hollow structure that is open to the seawater below the surface and connects to an air turbine above through a chamber. As the waves rise and fall, the air in the chamber is pushed back and forth through the air turbine, generating power.

Bioenergy​

Derived from organic materials such as biomass and agricultural crops, bioenergy offers a multifaceted solution to energy production. From traditional biomass use in rural areas to modern biofuel technologies, bioenergy presents a viable option for both energy access and environmental sustainability. However, careful consideration must be given to potential environmental impacts, with a focus on sustainable practices to mitigate adverse effects.

How does bioenergy work?​

Biopower technologies harness the energy from renewable biomass sources to generate heat and electricity, employing methods like those utilized with fossil fuels. The energy stored in biomass can be extracted through burning, bacterial decomposition, or conversion into gaseous or liquid fuels.

By utilizing biopower, the dependency on carbon-based fuels in power plants can be reduced, thereby decreasing the carbon footprint of electricity production. Unlike certain intermittent renewable energy sources, biopower offers increased flexibility in electricity generation and contributes to the reliability of the electric grid.

However, the energy created by burning biomass does create greenhouse gas emissions, but at lower levels than burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, or gas. Despite this, it is still considered a sustainable energy.

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Introduction​

It’s the question being asked by the biggest movers and shakers in the energy storage industry – which type of storage will challenge the dominance of lithium-ion batteries? Lithium-ion batteries are currently the indisputable technology of choice for storage developers, representing 90 percent of the total amount of storage deployed globally in 2020 and 2021. But energy storage investors are starting to think twice about lithium-ion, partly because lithium-ion carbonate prices soared more than ten-fold between 2021 and 2022 – prices have since fallen, but lithium carbonate is still around five times as expensive as it was two years ago. Other concerns include the fact that the mining of lithium can have negative social and environmental impacts. As a result, lithium mining companies are facing increasing scrutiny from investors regarding their environmental credentials. Fears have been expressed that an ESG-related “investor backlash” could derail the lithium mining industry – there have also been allegations of toxic chemicals from lithium mines polluting water supplies.

The ‘next big thing’ in energy storage?​

In light of such controversy, companies are racing to find the ‘next big thing’ in energy storage, focusing on alternative technologies that are likely to raise fewer environmental concerns. However, other factors also play a role in determining the appeal of alternative storage options. Managing frequency-response, which involves maintaining grid frequency at around 60 hertz in the US or 50 hertz in the UK and Europe to prevent system instability, is one of the primary applications for energy storage today. This often requires storage for durations of an hour or less, where battery storage is most cost-effective. But as the future shifts towards using energy storage for price arbitrage or capacity provision, the focus will increasingly turn to developing long-duration storage technologies. Investors are recognizing the value in these technologies more and more.

So, which types of long-duration storage are currently attracting the most interest from investors? Here, the Energy Storage Report highlights four to watch. Let’s take a look at them.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES)​

In the 1870s, engineers deployed primitive CAES systems to provide effective, on-demand energy for cities and industries. Although many smaller types of CAES exist, Germany established the first utility-scale system in the 1970s, with a nameplate capacity of over 290 MW. This technology is now starting to gain significant attention from investors, with one international bank revealing to Energy Storage Report that it is currently in discussions about a potential investment in CAES.

The momentum began in January last year when Canadian CAES company Hydrostor secured a $250 million preferred equity financing commitment from the private equity and sustainable investing divisions within Goldman Sachs Asset Management. Investors view Hydrostor as well-positioned to become a market leader, and many are convinced that the need for utility-scale long-duration storage is becoming increasingly urgent.

Elsewhere, at the end of last year, Australian energy developers Sunshine Hydro and Energy Estate said they were exploring the possibility of utilizing long-duration energy storage technologies, including compressed air. In February this year, compressed air energy storage company Corre Energy raised approximately €8.9 million via the placing of new shares. This came a month after the company launched a subsidiary in the US – the US Department of Energy has ranked CAES as one of the lowest-cost long-duration storage technologies. 

Flow batteries​

Flow batteries appeal to investors because they are safe and non-toxic, which makes them more robust when installed in harsher environments. These were among the main drivers behind Energy Storage Industries Asia Pacific’s decision last year to enter a strategic partnership with ESS for the provision of up to 12GWh of iron flow batteries in Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania. Indeed, some observers have tipped ESS’ product to become the “gold standard in the flow battery industry”.

However, flow batteries do score highly in other areas among investors. For example, they make use of low-cost materials – vanadium, the most commonly used electrolyte in flow batteries, is widely available. Vanadium can be recovered from waste products such as mining slag, oil field sludge, and fly ash (a coal combustion product that is composed of the particulates that are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases). As a result, flow batteries are appealing to investors from an environmental, social, and governance (ESG) perspective as they do not utilize ‘conflict’ materials such as cobalt.

In September last year, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) in California placed its faith in long-duration iron flow batteries with the announcement of a deal with ESS for the provision of 200MW / 2GWh, which will be integrated into the SMUD electricity grid from 2023. Last year also saw special purpose acquisition company (SPAC) Mustang Energy PLC  enter into an agreement with Acacia Resources to acquire its 27.4 percent interest in VRFB Holdings – a shareholder in Austrian vanadium redox flow battery system manufacturer CellCube – for US$10.5 million. In August last year, Largo Clean Energy, part of Largo Inc, signed a ‘non-binding’ memorandum of understanding with Ansaldo Green Tech to negotiate the formation of a joint venture for the manufacture and commercial deployment of vanadium redox flow batteries in the European, African, and Middle East Power Generation Markets. Also in 2022, Australian energy developers Sunshine Hydro and Energy Estate said they were exploring the possible use of flow batteries.

Gravity-based storage​

Some analysts expect gravity-based storage to figure much more prominently in energy systems around the world in the coming years. In September last year, it was announced that Energy Vault’s gravity energy storage technology will be deployed at a 2GWh storage project in China being developed by Atlas Renewable LLC, the Investment Association of China, environmental management company China Tianying and a group of provincial and local governments. 

Meanwhile, in February this year, underground gravity storage technology company Gravitricity signed a memorandum of understanding with Czech state enterprise DIAMO with the aim of working together to seek EU funds to transform the former Darkov deep mine into a large-scale energy store, a project that could be a pathfinder for projects Europe-wide.[5] A month earlier, Gravitricity appointed corporate finance specialists Gneiss Energy to spearhead a £40 million funding drive with the goal of building three demonstrator projects in the next five years. However, some gravity-based energy storage technologies have been plagued by skeptics who question their effectiveness. 

Last year, Energy Vault – despite its roots in gravity-based storage – signed a contract for the deployment of a 275.2 MWh battery storage project at W Power’s Energy Reliability Center in Stanton, California, in a move it said reflected the company’s new “technology-agnostic” integration and software strategy – ultimately, it was a development that added fuel to the gravity-based storage skeptics fire.

Zinc-based chemistries​

Zinc-air batteries are appealing because they have a higher energy density and better cycling stability than other batteries. Zinc8 Energy Solutions, which manufactures zinc-air batteries, says the technology has no fire and explosion risk, which makes it much safer. The company also says the batteries have “no capacity fade over an extensive lifetime”. Earlier this year, Zinc8 was approved for a $9 million grant from Empire State Development, a New York economic development corporation.

The grant took the form of tax credits offered as an incentive for the company to locate and establish its first US-based production facility in New York State. Meanwhile, in January this year, zinc-powered long-duration energy storage system provider Eos Energy Enterprises received $13.75 million in investment from a number of investors including Clear Creek Investments, LLC, Ardsley Advisory Partners and AltEnergy, LLC. Elsewhere, in December last year, Oregon-based Nickel-zinc battery-based systems company ZincFive raised $54 million in Series D funding, bringing the company’s total funding since inception to $139 million. Despite, the undoubted potential of zinc-based energy storage systems, concerns have been raised about possible limitations on future zinc supplies.^[6]

With demand for long-duration storage set to rise in the coming years, investors are aware that the use of long-duration storage will become more commonplace. DNV has forecast that long-duration technologies such as CAES, flow batteries, gravity-based storage, and zinc-based technologies will “enter the market at scale” in the second half of the 2030s. Prior to that, despite some reservations about some types of gravity-based storage, we can expect notable growth in the deployment of all these types of long-duration storage in the near future.

About the author

Ben Cook is the Insights Director at Tamarindo. Tamarindo delivers insights, connections, and communications for the global energy transition. He heads up Tamarindo’s Energy Storage Report. An experienced editor and journalist, he has worked as a writer and contributor for national newspapers, including The Guardian and The Times. He also spent six years as the Madrid-based editor of a legal magazine and website and previously worked as chief editor for a Paris-based legal and financial ratings agency. He has also previously worked as chief editor for a Milan-headquartered legal publisher.

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How to sustainably integrate energy and agriculture

Solar photovoltaics (PV) have experienced rapid global expansion in recent years. It’s boasting a cumulative capacity of 942 GW by 2021 (Figure 1). Despite PV’s potential to cover a fraction of global land for electricity generation, localized land competition and social acceptance issues loom. Concurrently, preserving agricultural land, improving crop yields sustainably, and addressing climate change are pressing agricultural concerns. In this context, the fusion of solar PV systems and agriculture, known as agrivoltaics, presents a mutually beneficial solution to why analyzing optimal PV setup for agrivoltaics is relevant.

With over a decade of experience connecting developers and investors, we dive into the trenches, revealing the most common mistakes developers make that sink renewable energy projects before they even see the light of day.

Integrating PV systems and crops can usher in micro-climate shifts, diminishing irrigation needs and enhancing soil conditions in arid environments. Additionally, solar panels can serve as rainwater collectors for irrigation. They can also provide weather protection for crops, and foster a harmonious food-energy alliance. Research has demonstrated varied impacts on crop yields under APV, with certain crops thriving and others experiencing marginal decreases.

Analyzing the potential of APV installations across Europe

Investigating various agrivoltaic photovoltaic (APV) configurations, this study focuses on three PV setups. Optimal tilted, horizontal single-axis tracking and vertical bifacial setups (Figure 2A, 2B and 2C). These setups are analyzed in detail to elucidate their unique characteristics and design elements.

Optimal tilted PV system

The optimal tilted configuration involves a monofacial fixed-tilt PV system facing south. Notably, the optimal tilt angle adjusts based on latitude to maximize yearly electricity generation, in line with European Commission guidelines. Illustrated in Figure 2A, this design is referred to as the tilted configuration.

Horizontal single-axis tracking PV system

In the horizontal single-axis tracking setup, monofacial PV panels are mounted along a north-south axis. They can adjust their tilt angle dynamically throughout the day. Panels orient eastward in the morning, lie flat at noon, and face westward in the evening. Figure 2B provides a schematic illustrating this design at different times, termed the single-axis tracking configuration.

Vertical bifacial PV system

The vertical bifacial configuration places PV modules vertically along a north-south axis. That exposes one side to the east and the other to the west. This setup—referred to as vertical bifacial—assumes a bifaciality factor of 0.8, enhancing its energy capture potential. See Figure 2C below.

Agricultural photovoltaic configurations: Electricity, shadows, and potential benefits in Europe

This study investigates three distinct agrivoltaic (APV) setups on a reference field measuring 100 m x 100 m to analyze electricity output and on a 50 m x 50 m field to assess shadow effects on the ground. The choice of field sizes minimizes border errors while maintaining computational feasibility. PV modules are positioned at fixed heights above the ground: 2 m for the tilted setup, 1 m for the single-axis tracking, and vertical bifacial setups. This differentiation arises due to the elevated structure required for the tilted setup’s optimal performance. While the distance above the ground does not impact electricity production, it influences shadow distribution on the ground. Inter-row spacing and PV module height are considered variables in conjunction with installation types.

All setups are assumed to use solar panels with similar electrical properties for modeling solar PV generation. The analysis includes irradiance reaching the modules and solar electricity production. Considering different crop radiation demands, the study factors in shadowing effects on the ground and their impact on crops. Performance indicators such as capacity density, electricity yield, price-weighted electricity yield, shadow losses, and specific yield are evaluated in Figure 3.

Land availability and maximum electricity generation are assessed to determine the potential of APV systems in Europe (See Table 1 below).

Land eligibility analysis using the Corine Land Cover database identifies suitable land types for APV systems, excluding protected areas. The analysis contributes to understanding APV setups’ viability and potential benefits in different contexts.

The performance and potential of various PV setups in agrivoltaic systems

Significant findings emerge in assessing the optimal PV setup for agrivoltaics and the performance of distinct photovoltaic (PV) setups at a low-irradiance northern location (Foulum, Denmark). The figure below, (4A) illustrates the specific yield for different configurations, factoring in shadow losses. The average daily electricity yield for each month is analyzed in (4B). Daily generation profiles vary, especially in Denmark due to electricity price fluctuations, causing a midday dip shown in (4C). Vertical bifacial setups align better with price profiles, yielding more price-weighted electricity despite lower overall output.

The single-axis tracking setup yields the highest, followed by tilted and vertical bifacial setups. Notably, the tilted setup maintains a consistent specific yield until a capacity density of around 70 W/m², while the others decrease at lower densities. Shadow losses remain minimal at the lowest capacity density (15 W/m²) for all configurations.

Spacing and heights for the optimal PV setup for agrivoltaics​

Analyzing varying heights within a setup and considering inter-row spacing, it’s observed that increased height enhances electricity generation, while greater spacing diminishes generation. Irregularities are attributed to shadow effects. The analysis of temporal generation patterns shows summer yielding higher electricity production than winter. Tilted setups outperform others in winter, while single-axis tracking excels in summer.

The assessment extends to irradiance distribution on the ground in (5). Vertical bifacial demonstrates even shadows and irradiance distribution, unlike the tilted configuration with more pronounced shading

Figure 6 presents a chart depicting the proportion of the field with adequate irradiance for crops relative to electricity yield. A decision map to prioritize: crop production (upper left corner). Electricity generation (lower right corner). Or strike a balance between the two.

Looking into the optimal PV setup for agrivoltaics in Europe

When expanding the analysis to Europe, we see the yearly electricity output rises as latitude decreases in all three cases. With axis tracking leading, followed by tilted, and vertical bifacial setups, the sequence remains consistent across all locations. Moreover, we explore whether these relative differences hold true regardless of location. To investigate, we normalize the specific yield for each setup relative to the tilted configuration in its respective location. Illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 8 extends Figure 4 to various European countries. Latitude subtly alters the daily generation profiles for the three configurations. But it’s the unique daily evolution of spot market electricity prices, influenced by demand patterns and renewable penetration, that stands out in each country. Across the board, the tracking configuration consistently achieves the highest electricity yield. However, depending on the specific country, either the tilted or bifacial vertical configuration secures the second-highest price-weighted electricity yield. Illustrated in Figure 9.

Considering eligible areas for the optimal PV setup agrivoltaics

The analysis investigates APV’s viability and electricity generation potential across Europe using NUTS-2 regional analysis. By assessing land eligibility, we pinpoint suitable areas within countries.

Various land types exist, including artificial surfaces, agriculture, forests, wetlands, and water bodies. Among them, arable land, permanent crops, and pastures are prime for APVs (see Table 1). For instance, in central Denmark (Midtjylland), about 64% of the land is eligible, totaling 8,341 km² (see Figure 10 below).

The land eligibility analysis for European APV expansion, using NUT-2 regions (see Figure 11). It represents 16.2% of a total eligible area of 1.7 million km2. The distribution across Europe is uneven, with most countries falling within 12% to 29%. A few have even less (1% to 9%), while some excel, like Hungary (58.6%), Denmark (53.9%), and Ireland (63.9%). Fruit tree areas are valuable for static tilt APV setups as they offer protection from heavy rainfall and hail. In Europe, there’s roughly 29,000 km2 of such land available.

These regions constitute 16.2%, totaling 1.7 million km². However, it’s important to note that eligibility varies significantly across Europe. In most European countries we saw the proportion of eligible land ranges from 12% to 29%

What is the capacity potential for agrivoltaics in Europe?

The capacity potential (in GW) for APV across NUTS-2 regions, is found by factoring in the land types detailed in Table 1 and a capacity density of 30 W/m². The southern and eastern regions of Europe exhibit higher suitability for APV systems. This confirms the findings in the analysis, illustrated in Figure 12.

APV system energy potential (TWh/year) in EU NUTS-2 regions: optimal tilt, vertical bifacial, and horizontal single-axis tracking PV systems is revealed in Figure 13.

APV configurations and potential for sustainable energy and agriculture

This study delved into diverse agricultural photovoltaic (APV) configurations in Foulum, Denmark, and across European regions categorized by NUTS-2-regions. The research focused on two key aspects: the feasibility of PV systems and their impact on underlying agricultural land. Three distinct APV setups were scrutinized: optimal tilted, horizontal single-axis tracking, and vertical bifacial.

A sophisticated model was devised, accurately simulating shadow effects on solar panels and the ground. This nuanced approach allowed precise analysis of hourly shadow-related production losses for each setup, diverging from generalized loss assumptions. The outcomes affirmed expectations: single-axis tracking yields greater electricity output. However, vertical bifacial setups exhibited superior price-weighted electricity yields in select countries when assessing daily generation patterns.

A 30 W/m2 capacity density is used to assess APV potential in various European NUTS-2 regions. This balances high electricity yields while preserving over 80% of land for crops.

Extending analysis across Europe using the Corine Land Cover database, eligibility areas for APVs were determined, highlighting uneven distribution. Some countries, like Norway, possessed just 1% suitable area, while others, like Denmark, boasted up to 53%.

Overall, APV’s potential shines bright. With a capacity of 51 TW across Europe, it is capable of generating 71,500 TWh/year—25 times the current electricity demand.

About the authors

Kamran Ali Khan Niazi | Marta Victoria

Kamran Ali Khan Niazi from Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, iClimate, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.

Marta Victoria from Novo Nordisk Foundation CO2 ResearchCenter, Aarhus, Denmark.

The original article is from the EU2020 project, i.e., H2020Hyperfarm.

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What problem does Phelas solve?

Phelas was founded to turn a very simple vision into reality. We want 100% renewable power to be a no-brainer everywhere on this planet.

Over the past 20 years, the world has made progress in bringing down the cost of renewable generation, but still lacks a scalable, resource-efficient storage option to offset the uncontrollable volatility of renewables and thus fully decarbonize the energy sector.

For this reason, the Phelas team is developing Aurora, a standardized, mass-produced large-scale electrical storage system built on a new proprietary approach to air liquefaction.

We use air and gravel as the main storage medium – both materials are universally available and, unlike lithium-ion, less hazardous and less resource-geographically dependent. The technology offers a decisive cost advantage for large amounts of energy, at the same time with no cyclic degradation and excellent environmental compatibility.

What is liquid air energy storage and how does it work?​

The Aurora system is a unique new approach to Liquid Air Energy Storage. It leverages pressure and cryogenic temperatures. The phase transition‘s inherent enthalpy to store energy. In a nutshell, our liquid air storage system uses energy during the charging process to compress air, cooling it down to extremely cold temperatures as low as -200°C and thus liquefying it. For discharging, the cryogenic liquid is heated – literally boiled – and vaporized in the process. The steep increase in volume and pressure is in turn used to generate electricity, similar to a steam engine. The principal process was developed over 100 years ago and is still in industry use today. Phelas has developed it further to meet the needs of energy storage in the energy system of the future.

What is the power-to-power efficiency (roundtrip) of LAES?​

This is a common question we get.

And we usually say: What should the storage system cost?

We have improved the Life-Cycle costs of the system while carefully keeping a reasonable efficiency of the system. Our cost engineering solves the equation for levelized cost of storage (LCOS), which ultimately describes the cost per kWh of green energy for our customers.

Thus, the roundtrip efficiency of around 50 to 60 % will achieve profitable application. Additionally, a paradigm shift in the energy sector will further reduce the relevance of the roundtrip efficiency of energy storage systems.

Today, the cost of generation dominates the electricity sector. This puts a big price tag if your storage system is inefficient. In a renewable energy system, the cost of generation is significantly lower, in times of curtailment and market cannibalization even zero. Here, the most pressing challenge will be to store as much energy cost-effectively as possible. Capital expenditures will outweigh operational expenditures and optimized storage systems, such as phelas Aurora, will be increasingly important!

Hybrid PPAs offer a solution, but are there any bottlenecks in terms of the technical and economical scalability of the technology?

We use predominantly proven and reliable off-the-shelf components in our system, which enables cost-effective supply chains and ensures high component reliability. In case of a defect, spare parts can be provided quickly globally. All components used in our system are non-toxic and pose no environmental or fire risk. This sets us apart from many electrochemical energy storage technologies such as Li-ion batteries or vanadium redox flow batteries. Our storage system is independent of critical resources (such as lithium, cobalt, or vanadium) that are often required for electrochemical storage solutions. Furthermore, a European supply chain can be realized and all components are suitable for recycling. Our entire product development focuses on delivering a product that can be ramped up on a global scale.

Do you think LAES is competitive when compared to lithium batteries or CAES? How will this change over time?

Yes, we are more profitable in energy-centric applications than Lithium-Ion batteries and CAES. However, Lithium will always have a space in the energy storage landscape. It is a high-performing, fast-reacting technology that will help to stabilize the grids on a short-term level – so to speak, the perfect sprinter. LAES on the other side is a marathon runner, making sure, that we have renewable energy 24/7. Both systems will perfectly complement each other and therefore have their space in the energy sector. CAES might be competitive from an LCOS point of view, but it is a lot less energy-dense and therefore needs much more available land to achieve the same storage capacity.

More on alternative storage​

If you’re interested in learning more about alternative storage solutions, don’t miss out on our Q&A we did with the CEO of Enerpoly, who specializes in Zink-ion battery storage, or read more about how we can help secure the right financing for energy storage projects.

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What is the Enerpoly innovative perspective on zinc-ion energy storage?

Enerpoly develops and manufactures zinc-ion batteries to deliver breakthrough affordability in stationary storage. The patented technology innovates the rechargeability of the single-use zinc-manganese alkaline battery – chemistry that has dominated the primary battery industry as a simple, well-performing, and economical solution for more than half a century.

Zinc-ion batteries use the same zinc and manganese – cost-effective, safe materials that have existing stable supply chains and recycling infrastructure. Enerpoly thus delivers the lowest cost of ownership in battery energy storage (< $50/MWh LCOS) and allows for sustainable scaling. By innovating with these materials, Enerpoly is building a world where everyone has access to clean energy.

What is Enerpoly doing to enhance battery sustainability (toxicity-recycle)?

Based in Stockholm, Enerpoly brings the best of Swedish design, eco-friendliness, and sustainability to the energy storage industry.

By working with materials that are sourced and produced locally, Enerpoly mitigates carbon emissions by 75kg CO2eq per kWh produced (cradle-to-gate) versus LFP batteries.

Enerpoly exclusively uses non-toxic materials and solvents in the production process. Zinc-ion batteries are safe and are constructed similarly to alkaline batteries which have been used in household devices, even including children’s toys, for the last 60 years.

Enerpoly focuses on ensuring the circularity of the battery. The major components, zinc, and manganese, are already recyclable, with end-of-life recycling rates in the EU at 40-50%.

How do you see the energy storage market in terms of raw materials and natural resources?​

Enerpoly has always considered raw materials of paramount importance, both in terms of cost and availability. CTO and co-founder Dr. Mylad Chamoun focused his research into electrochemical storage on finding solutions that make energy storage more economical and accessible. His research breakthrough on zinc-ion batteries led to the founding of Enerpoly.

Energy storage is highly dependent on the availability and accessibility of raw materials. Recent global events have revealed how concentrated supply and unstable supply chains can lead to price volatility. Key raw material prices for lithium-ion batteries have reached all-time highs, and end-users like automakers are even considering investments into raw material refining to secure supply.

To steal the words of Simon Moores, CEO, Benchmark: “For the next decade, physical supply of key battery raw materials is king – it will make or break […] plans.”

In this environment, Enerpoly holds an advantage by using accessible and circular materials such as zinc and manganese. For example, zinc currently produces 130x more than lithium with a 21x lower cost. It also has a high end-of-life recycling rate as mentioned previously.

Based on your experience with zinc-ion, which are the main factors influencing the deployment of large-scale energy storage?

There are 3 factors Enerpoly has seen influencing energy storage deployments:

1) The high cost of battery materials can render energy storage projects unfeasible. Today’s existing battery solutions are unable to deliver the combination of low cost and long lifetime to break even on the investment.

2) Integrators have issues sourcing battery supply for stationary storage. This issue will be exacerbated as EV uptake accelerates.

3) The issues of safety have dogged battery storage installations with tightening local regulations, strict fire codes and vetting by fire departments, and/or community protests.

Enerpoly’s zinc-ion batteries can tackle all these challenges. Enerpoly focuses on delivering groundbreaking affordability to energy storage by bringing zinc-ion batteries to market quickly. This scalability is achieved by leveraging and adapting existing infrastructure and processes to zinc-ion battery production, as well as using globally accessible materials. The batteries and the associated manufacturing processes are low-risk given the non-flammable, non-explosive, and non-toxic materials utilized.

What are the safety concerns around energy storage and how Enerpoly solution is different? (flammability) ​

The zinc-ion battery cell contains an aqueous electrolyte, aka it’s water-based. Water doesn’t burn and offers an excellent heat sink.

Nonetheless, Enerpoly tested the zinc-ion battery against UL9540A standards to measure thermal runaway fire propagation. The battery cell tested exceedingly well, proving it is non-flammable and non-explosive.

Do you identify any constraints to the deployment of the technology in regards to its grid-scale scalability, what is your timeline?

Today, Enerpoly has a production validation line (<500kWh/yr production) based in Stockholm and is aiming at field pilots in 2023. Hence, the main constraint toward grid-scale zinc-ion battery solutions is scaling up manufacturing to service the market.

To scale up production, Enerpoly is working on securing financing and offtake agreements. We anticipate being able to work with the grid-scale storage market starting in 2025-26. Given that projects have some runtime before the start of commission, Enerpoly is very interested in having discussions with project developers and integrators looking to secure future supply.

More alternatives to storage​

If you would like to know more about energy storage, we recommend checking out our piece on the alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, our Q&A with Phelas who specializes in liquid air energy storage, or our more practical piece on how battery energy storage systems work.

La entrada Zinc-ion Battery Storage – Q&A With Enerpoly se publicó primero en We turn good projects into great deals - Green Dealflow.

VRE impacts the way power systems operate

Renewables, such as solar and wind, are uncertain and inverter-based. These downsides of the technologies introduce challenges in managing the dynamics of the grid while replacing synchronous conventional generators. 

In addition, introducing more distributed generation produces the need for digitalization and electrification of the consumers, which opens many opportunities, but also introduces costs at a system level to ensure that the system stays stable while increasing the flexibility and resilience needed as renewables production increases. 

With the system operations evolving and more independent power producers (IPPs), the monitoring and control system of the grid needs more coordination and readiness, with more advanced codes governing the system operator activities. 

Grid connection codes in a transforming power system

Two important aspects addressed by grid codes are voltage and frequency regulations. Most of the work that is done to upgrade the grid codes aims to address the lack of inertia introduced by inverter-based generators and ensure operations during faults and contingencies.

Solar and wind plant interfaces are based on power electronics and no synchronous generator is there with rotational inertia, causing an increase in the rate of change of frequency after the event, causing the need for more security measures to avoid bit variations from the standard 50 Hz. Therefore, to achieve a grid with high penetration of VRE new operational mechanisms and participation of these technologies in black start operations (restoring service after blackout).

Are declining subsidies incentivizing co-location?​

The role of ancillary services, as balancing markets (also managed by grid codes), which ensure the balance between demand and supply, will increase its importance in order to keep the system going.

Even though VREs provide a certain degree of fast frequency response (FFR) and reactive power regulation, these services can be enabled only with adequate control in place. 

With the energy system facing increasing change along with the necessity of implementing real-time internet-based data to keep up with operations and control of the grid, cybersecurity gains much more importance than before.  

The dynamics of the energy sector are changing, and more power electronics and control systems dramatically increase the vulnerability to cyberattacks.

Grid codes, through AI or machine learning implementation, will play a crucial role in the development of low-carbon grids and their secure and stable operations.

Frequently asked questions​

La entrada What Are Grid Codes, And Why They Matter se publicó primero en We turn good projects into great deals - Green Dealflow.